options.go

// Copyright 2011 The LevelDB-Go and Pebble Authors. All rights reserved. Use
// of this source code is governed by a BSD-style license that can be found in
// the LICENSE file.

package pebble

import (
	"bytes"
	"fmt"
	"io"
	"runtime"
	"strconv"
	"strings"
	"time"
	"unicode"

	"github.com/cockroachdb/crlib/fifo"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/errors"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/internal/base"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/internal/cache"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/internal/humanize"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/internal/keyspan"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/internal/manifest"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/internal/testkeys"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/objstorage/objstorageprovider"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/objstorage/remote"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/rangekey"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/sstable"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/sstable/block"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/sstable/colblk"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/vfs"
	"github.com/cockroachdb/pebble/wal"
)

const (
	cacheDefaultSize       = 8 << 20 // 8 MB
	defaultLevelMultiplier = 10
)

// Compression exports the base.Compression type.
type Compression = block.Compression

// Exported Compression constants.
const (
	DefaultCompression = block.DefaultCompression
	NoCompression      = block.NoCompression
	SnappyCompression  = block.SnappyCompression
	ZstdCompression    = block.ZstdCompression
)

// FilterType exports the base.FilterType type.
type FilterType = base.FilterType

// Exported TableFilter constants.
const (
	TableFilter = base.TableFilter
)

// FilterWriter exports the base.FilterWriter type.
type FilterWriter = base.FilterWriter

// FilterPolicy exports the base.FilterPolicy type.
type FilterPolicy = base.FilterPolicy

// KeySchema exports the colblk.KeySchema type.
type KeySchema = colblk.KeySchema

// BlockPropertyCollector exports the sstable.BlockPropertyCollector type.
type BlockPropertyCollector = sstable.BlockPropertyCollector

// BlockPropertyFilter exports the sstable.BlockPropertyFilter type.
type BlockPropertyFilter = base.BlockPropertyFilter

// ShortAttributeExtractor exports the base.ShortAttributeExtractor type.
type ShortAttributeExtractor = base.ShortAttributeExtractor

// UserKeyPrefixBound exports the sstable.UserKeyPrefixBound type.
type UserKeyPrefixBound = sstable.UserKeyPrefixBound

// CompactionLimiter exports the base.CompactionLimiter type.
type CompactionLimiter = base.CompactionLimiter

// CompactionSlot exports the base.CompactionSlot type.
type CompactionSlot = base.CompactionSlot

// IterKeyType configures which types of keys an iterator should surface.
type IterKeyType int8

const (
	// IterKeyTypePointsOnly configures an iterator to iterate over point keys
	// only.
	IterKeyTypePointsOnly IterKeyType = iota
	// IterKeyTypeRangesOnly configures an iterator to iterate over range keys
	// only.
	IterKeyTypeRangesOnly
	// IterKeyTypePointsAndRanges configures an iterator iterate over both point
	// keys and range keys simultaneously.
	IterKeyTypePointsAndRanges
)

// String implements fmt.Stringer.
func (t IterKeyType) String() string {
	switch t {
	case IterKeyTypePointsOnly:
		return "points-only"
	case IterKeyTypeRangesOnly:
		return "ranges-only"
	case IterKeyTypePointsAndRanges:
		return "points-and-ranges"
	default:
		panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown key type %d", t))
	}
}

// IterOptions hold the optional per-query parameters for NewIter.
//
// Like Options, a nil *IterOptions is valid and means to use the default
// values.
type IterOptions struct {
	// LowerBound specifies the smallest key (inclusive) that the iterator will
	// return during iteration. If the iterator is seeked or iterated past this
	// boundary the iterator will return Valid()==false. Setting LowerBound
	// effectively truncates the key space visible to the iterator.
	LowerBound []byte
	// UpperBound specifies the largest key (exclusive) that the iterator will
	// return during iteration. If the iterator is seeked or iterated past this
	// boundary the iterator will return Valid()==false. Setting UpperBound
	// effectively truncates the key space visible to the iterator.
	UpperBound []byte
	// SkipPoint may be used to skip over point keys that don't match an
	// arbitrary predicate during iteration. If set, the Iterator invokes
	// SkipPoint for keys encountered. If SkipPoint returns true, the iterator
	// will skip the key without yielding it to the iterator operation in
	// progress.
	//
	// SkipPoint must be a pure function and always return the same result when
	// provided the same arguments. The iterator may call SkipPoint multiple
	// times for the same user key.
	SkipPoint func(userKey []byte) bool
	// PointKeyFilters can be used to avoid scanning tables and blocks in tables
	// when iterating over point keys. This slice represents an intersection
	// across all filters, i.e., all filters must indicate that the block is
	// relevant.
	//
	// Performance note: When len(PointKeyFilters) > 0, the caller should ensure
	// that cap(PointKeyFilters) is at least len(PointKeyFilters)+1. This helps
	// avoid allocations in Pebble internal code that mutates the slice.
	PointKeyFilters []BlockPropertyFilter
	// RangeKeyFilters can be usefd to avoid scanning tables and blocks in tables
	// when iterating over range keys. The same requirements that apply to
	// PointKeyFilters apply here too.
	RangeKeyFilters []BlockPropertyFilter
	// KeyTypes configures which types of keys to iterate over: point keys,
	// range keys, or both.
	KeyTypes IterKeyType
	// RangeKeyMasking can be used to enable automatic masking of point keys by
	// range keys. Range key masking is only supported during combined range key
	// and point key iteration mode (IterKeyTypePointsAndRanges).
	RangeKeyMasking RangeKeyMasking

	// OnlyReadGuaranteedDurable is an advanced option that is only supported by
	// the Reader implemented by DB. When set to true, only the guaranteed to be
	// durable state is visible in the iterator.
	// - This definition is made under the assumption that the FS implementation
	//   is providing a durability guarantee when data is synced.
	// - The visible state represents a consistent point in the history of the
	//   DB.
	// - The implementation is free to choose a conservative definition of what
	//   is guaranteed durable. For simplicity, the current implementation
	//   ignores memtables. A more sophisticated implementation could track the
	//   highest seqnum that is synced to the WAL and published and use that as
	//   the visible seqnum for an iterator. Note that the latter approach is
	//   not strictly better than the former since we can have DBs that are (a)
	//   synced more rarely than memtable flushes, (b) have no WAL. (a) is
	//   likely to be true in a future CockroachDB context where the DB
	//   containing the state machine may be rarely synced.
	// NB: this current implementation relies on the fact that memtables are
	// flushed in seqnum order, and any ingested sstables that happen to have a
	// lower seqnum than a non-flushed memtable don't have any overlapping keys.
	// This is the fundamental level invariant used in other code too, like when
	// merging iterators.
	//
	// Semantically, using this option provides the caller a "snapshot" as of
	// the time the most recent memtable was flushed. An alternate interface
	// would be to add a NewSnapshot variant. Creating a snapshot is heavier
	// weight than creating an iterator, so we have opted to support this
	// iterator option.
	OnlyReadGuaranteedDurable bool
	// UseL6Filters allows the caller to opt into reading filter blocks for L6
	// sstables. Helpful if a lot of SeekPrefixGEs are expected in quick
	// succession, that are also likely to not yield a single key. Filter blocks in
	// L6 can be relatively large, often larger than data blocks, so the benefit of
	// loading them in the cache is minimized if the probability of the key
	// existing is not low or if we just expect a one-time Seek (where loading the
	// data block directly is better).
	UseL6Filters bool
	// Category is used for categorized iterator stats. This should not be
	// changed by calling SetOptions.
	Category sstable.Category

	DebugRangeKeyStack bool

	// Internal options.

	logger Logger
	// Layer corresponding to this file. Only passed in if constructed by a
	// levelIter.
	layer manifest.Layer
	// disableLazyCombinedIteration is an internal testing option.
	disableLazyCombinedIteration bool
	// snapshotForHideObsoletePoints is specified for/by levelIter when opening
	// files and is used to decide whether to hide obsolete points. A value of 0
	// implies obsolete points should not be hidden.
	snapshotForHideObsoletePoints base.SeqNum

	// NB: If adding new Options, you must account for them in iterator
	// construction and Iterator.SetOptions.
}

// GetLowerBound returns the LowerBound or nil if the receiver is nil.
func (o *IterOptions) GetLowerBound() []byte {
	if o == nil {
		return nil
	}
	return o.LowerBound
}

// GetUpperBound returns the UpperBound or nil if the receiver is nil.
func (o *IterOptions) GetUpperBound() []byte {
	if o == nil {
		return nil
	}
	return o.UpperBound
}

func (o *IterOptions) pointKeys() bool {
	if o == nil {
		return true
	}
	return o.KeyTypes == IterKeyTypePointsOnly || o.KeyTypes == IterKeyTypePointsAndRanges
}

func (o *IterOptions) rangeKeys() bool {
	if o == nil {
		return false
	}
	return o.KeyTypes == IterKeyTypeRangesOnly || o.KeyTypes == IterKeyTypePointsAndRanges
}

func (o *IterOptions) getLogger() Logger {
	if o == nil || o.logger == nil {
		return DefaultLogger
	}
	return o.logger
}

// SpanIterOptions creates a SpanIterOptions from this IterOptions.
func (o *IterOptions) SpanIterOptions() keyspan.SpanIterOptions {
	if o == nil {
		return keyspan.SpanIterOptions{}
	}
	return keyspan.SpanIterOptions{
		RangeKeyFilters: o.RangeKeyFilters,
	}
}

// scanInternalOptions is similar to IterOptions, meant for use with
// scanInternalIterator.
type scanInternalOptions struct {
	IterOptions

	category sstable.Category

	visitPointKey     func(key *InternalKey, value LazyValue, iterInfo IteratorLevel) error
	visitRangeDel     func(start, end []byte, seqNum SeqNum) error
	visitRangeKey     func(start, end []byte, keys []rangekey.Key) error
	visitSharedFile   func(sst *SharedSSTMeta) error
	visitExternalFile func(sst *ExternalFile) error

	// includeObsoleteKeys specifies whether keys shadowed by newer internal keys
	// are exposed. If false, only one internal key per user key is exposed.
	includeObsoleteKeys bool

	// rateLimitFunc is used to limit the amount of bytes read per second.
	rateLimitFunc func(key *InternalKey, value LazyValue) error
}

// RangeKeyMasking configures automatic hiding of point keys by range keys. A
// non-nil Suffix enables range-key masking. When enabled, range keys with
// suffixes ≥ Suffix behave as masks. All point keys that are contained within a
// masking range key's bounds and have suffixes greater than the range key's
// suffix are automatically skipped.
//
// Specifically, when configured with a RangeKeyMasking.Suffix _s_, and there
// exists a range key with suffix _r_ covering a point key with suffix _p_, and
//
//	_s_ ≤ _r_ < _p_
//
// then the point key is elided.
//
// Range-key masking may only be used when iterating over both point keys and
// range keys with IterKeyTypePointsAndRanges.
type RangeKeyMasking struct {
	// Suffix configures which range keys may mask point keys. Only range keys
	// that are defined at suffixes greater than or equal to Suffix will mask
	// point keys.
	Suffix []byte
	// Filter is an optional field that may be used to improve performance of
	// range-key masking through a block-property filter defined over key
	// suffixes. If non-nil, Filter is called by Pebble to construct a
	// block-property filter mask at iterator creation. The filter is used to
	// skip whole point-key blocks containing point keys with suffixes greater
	// than a covering range-key's suffix.
	//
	// To use this functionality, the caller must create and configure (through
	// Options.BlockPropertyCollectors) a block-property collector that records
	// the maxmimum suffix contained within a block. The caller then must write
	// and provide a BlockPropertyFilterMask implementation on that same
	// property. See the BlockPropertyFilterMask type for more information.
	Filter func() BlockPropertyFilterMask
}

// BlockPropertyFilterMask extends the BlockPropertyFilter interface for use
// with range-key masking. Unlike an ordinary block property filter, a
// BlockPropertyFilterMask's filtering criteria is allowed to change when Pebble
// invokes its SetSuffix method.
//
// When a Pebble iterator steps into a range key's bounds and the range key has
// a suffix greater than or equal to RangeKeyMasking.Suffix, the range key acts
// as a mask. The masking range key hides all point keys that fall within the
// range key's bounds and have suffixes > the range key's suffix. Without a
// filter mask configured, Pebble performs this hiding by stepping through point
// keys and comparing suffixes. If large numbers of point keys are masked, this
// requires Pebble to load, iterate through and discard a large number of
// sstable blocks containing masked point keys.
//
// If a block-property collector and a filter mask are configured, Pebble may
// skip loading some point-key blocks altogether. If a block's keys are known to
// all fall within the bounds of the masking range key and the block was
// annotated by a block-property collector with the maximal suffix, Pebble can
// ask the filter mask to compare the property to the current masking range
// key's suffix. If the mask reports no intersection, the block may be skipped.
//
// If unsuffixed and suffixed keys are written to the database, care must be
// taken to avoid unintentionally masking un-suffixed keys located in the same
// block as suffixed keys. One solution is to interpret unsuffixed keys as
// containing the maximal suffix value, ensuring that blocks containing
// unsuffixed keys are always loaded.
type BlockPropertyFilterMask interface {
	BlockPropertyFilter

	// SetSuffix configures the mask with the suffix of a range key. The filter
	// should return false from Intersects whenever it's provided with a
	// property encoding a block's minimum suffix that's greater (according to
	// Compare) than the provided suffix.
	SetSuffix(suffix []byte) error
}

// WriteOptions hold the optional per-query parameters for Set and Delete
// operations.
//
// Like Options, a nil *WriteOptions is valid and means to use the default
// values.
type WriteOptions struct {
	// Sync is whether to sync writes through the OS buffer cache and down onto
	// the actual disk, if applicable. Setting Sync is required for durability of
	// individual write operations but can result in slower writes.
	//
	// If false, and the process or machine crashes, then a recent write may be
	// lost. This is due to the recently written data being buffered inside the
	// process running Pebble. This differs from the semantics of a write system
	// call in which the data is buffered in the OS buffer cache and would thus
	// survive a process crash.
	//
	// The default value is true.
	Sync bool
}

// Sync specifies the default write options for writes which synchronize to
// disk.
var Sync = &WriteOptions{Sync: true}

// NoSync specifies the default write options for writes which do not
// synchronize to disk.
var NoSync = &WriteOptions{Sync: false}

// GetSync returns the Sync value or true if the receiver is nil.
func (o *WriteOptions) GetSync() bool {
	return o == nil || o.Sync
}

// LevelOptions holds the optional per-level parameters.
type LevelOptions struct {
	// BlockRestartInterval is the number of keys between restart points
	// for delta encoding of keys.
	//
	// The default value is 16.
	BlockRestartInterval int

	// BlockSize is the target uncompressed size in bytes of each table block.
	//
	// The default value is 4096.
	BlockSize int

	// BlockSizeThreshold finishes a block if the block size is larger than the
	// specified percentage of the target block size and adding the next entry
	// would cause the block to be larger than the target block size.
	//
	// The default value is 90
	BlockSizeThreshold int

	// Compression defines the per-block compression to use.
	//
	// The default value (DefaultCompression) uses snappy compression.
	Compression func() Compression

	// FilterPolicy defines a filter algorithm (such as a Bloom filter) that can
	// reduce disk reads for Get calls.
	//
	// One such implementation is bloom.FilterPolicy(10) from the pebble/bloom
	// package.
	//
	// The default value means to use no filter.
	FilterPolicy FilterPolicy

	// FilterType defines whether an existing filter policy is applied at a
	// block-level or table-level. Block-level filters use less memory to create,
	// but are slower to access as a check for the key in the index must first be
	// performed to locate the filter block. A table-level filter will require
	// memory proportional to the number of keys in an sstable to create, but
	// avoids the index lookup when determining if a key is present. Table-level
	// filters should be preferred except under constrained memory situations.
	FilterType FilterType

	// IndexBlockSize is the target uncompressed size in bytes of each index
	// block. When the index block size is larger than this target, two-level
	// indexes are automatically enabled. Setting this option to a large value
	// (such as math.MaxInt32) disables the automatic creation of two-level
	// indexes.
	//
	// The default value is the value of BlockSize.
	IndexBlockSize int

	// The target file size for the level.
	TargetFileSize int64
}

// EnsureDefaults ensures that the default values for all of the options have
// been initialized. It is valid to call EnsureDefaults on a nil receiver. A
// non-nil result will always be returned.
func (o *LevelOptions) EnsureDefaults() *LevelOptions {
	if o == nil {
		o = &LevelOptions{}
	}
	if o.BlockRestartInterval <= 0 {
		o.BlockRestartInterval = base.DefaultBlockRestartInterval
	}
	if o.BlockSize <= 0 {
		o.BlockSize = base.DefaultBlockSize
	} else if o.BlockSize > sstable.MaximumBlockSize {
		panic(errors.Errorf("BlockSize %d exceeds MaximumBlockSize", o.BlockSize))
	}
	if o.BlockSizeThreshold <= 0 {
		o.BlockSizeThreshold = base.DefaultBlockSizeThreshold
	}
	if o.Compression == nil {
		o.Compression = func() Compression { return DefaultCompression }
	}
	if o.IndexBlockSize <= 0 {
		o.IndexBlockSize = o.BlockSize
	}
	if o.TargetFileSize <= 0 {
		o.TargetFileSize = 2 << 20 // 2 MB
	}
	return o
}

// Options holds the optional parameters for configuring pebble. These options
// apply to the DB at large; per-query options are defined by the IterOptions
// and WriteOptions types.
type Options struct {
	// Sync sstables periodically in order to smooth out writes to disk. This
	// option does not provide any persistency guarantee, but is used to avoid
	// latency spikes if the OS automatically decides to write out a large chunk
	// of dirty filesystem buffers. This option only controls SSTable syncs; WAL
	// syncs are controlled by WALBytesPerSync.
	//
	// The default value is 512KB.
	BytesPerSync int

	// Cache is used to cache uncompressed blocks from sstables.
	//
	// The default cache size is 8 MB.
	Cache *cache.Cache

	// LoadBlockSema, if set, is used to limit the number of blocks that can be
	// loaded (i.e. read from the filesystem) in parallel. Each load acquires one
	// unit from the semaphore for the duration of the read.
	LoadBlockSema *fifo.Semaphore

	// Cleaner cleans obsolete files.
	//
	// The default cleaner uses the DeleteCleaner.
	Cleaner Cleaner

	// Local contains option that pertain to files stored on the local filesystem.
	Local struct {
		// ReadaheadConfig is used to retrieve the current readahead mode; it is
		// consulted whenever a read handle is initialized.
		ReadaheadConfig *ReadaheadConfig

		// TODO(radu): move BytesPerSync, LoadBlockSema, Cleaner here.
	}

	// Comparer defines a total ordering over the space of []byte keys: a 'less
	// than' relationship. The same comparison algorithm must be used for reads
	// and writes over the lifetime of the DB.
	//
	// The default value uses the same ordering as bytes.Compare.
	Comparer *Comparer

	// DebugCheck is invoked, if non-nil, whenever a new version is being
	// installed. Typically, this is set to pebble.DebugCheckLevels in tests
	// or tools only, to check invariants over all the data in the database.
	DebugCheck func(*DB) error

	// Disable the write-ahead log (WAL). Disabling the write-ahead log prohibits
	// crash recovery, but can improve performance if crash recovery is not
	// needed (e.g. when only temporary state is being stored in the database).
	//
	// TODO(peter): untested
	DisableWAL bool

	// ErrorIfExists causes an error on Open if the database already exists.
	// The error can be checked with errors.Is(err, ErrDBAlreadyExists).
	//
	// The default value is false.
	ErrorIfExists bool

	// ErrorIfNotExists causes an error on Open if the database does not already
	// exist. The error can be checked with errors.Is(err, ErrDBDoesNotExist).
	//
	// The default value is false which will cause a database to be created if it
	// does not already exist.
	ErrorIfNotExists bool

	// ErrorIfNotPristine causes an error on Open if the database already exists
	// and any operations have been performed on the database. The error can be
	// checked with errors.Is(err, ErrDBNotPristine).
	//
	// Note that a database that contained keys that were all subsequently deleted
	// may or may not trigger the error. Currently, we check if there are any live
	// SSTs or log records to replay.
	ErrorIfNotPristine bool

	// EventListener provides hooks to listening to significant DB events such as
	// flushes, compactions, and table deletion.
	EventListener *EventListener

	// Experimental contains experimental options which are off by default.
	// These options are temporary and will eventually either be deleted, moved
	// out of the experimental group, or made the non-adjustable default. These
	// options may change at any time, so do not rely on them.
	Experimental struct {
		// The threshold of L0 read-amplification at which compaction concurrency
		// is enabled (if CompactionDebtConcurrency was not already exceeded).
		// Every multiple of this value enables another concurrent
		// compaction up to MaxConcurrentCompactions.
		L0CompactionConcurrency int

		// CompactionDebtConcurrency controls the threshold of compaction debt
		// at which additional compaction concurrency slots are added. For every
		// multiple of this value in compaction debt bytes, an additional
		// concurrent compaction is added. This works "on top" of
		// L0CompactionConcurrency, so the higher of the count of compaction
		// concurrency slots as determined by the two options is chosen.
		CompactionDebtConcurrency uint64

		// IngestSplit, if it returns true, allows for ingest-time splitting of
		// existing sstables into two virtual sstables to allow ingestion sstables to
		// slot into a lower level than they otherwise would have.
		IngestSplit func() bool

		// ReadCompactionRate controls the frequency of read triggered
		// compactions by adjusting `AllowedSeeks` in manifest.FileMetadata:
		//
		// AllowedSeeks = FileSize / ReadCompactionRate
		//
		// From LevelDB:
		// ```
		// We arrange to automatically compact this file after
		// a certain number of seeks. Let's assume:
		//   (1) One seek costs 10ms
		//   (2) Writing or reading 1MB costs 10ms (100MB/s)
		//   (3) A compaction of 1MB does 25MB of IO:
		//         1MB read from this level
		//         10-12MB read from next level (boundaries may be misaligned)
		//         10-12MB written to next level
		// This implies that 25 seeks cost the same as the compaction
		// of 1MB of data.  I.e., one seek costs approximately the
		// same as the compaction of 40KB of data.  We are a little
		// conservative and allow approximately one seek for every 16KB
		// of data before triggering a compaction.
		// ```
		ReadCompactionRate int64

		// ReadSamplingMultiplier is a multiplier for the readSamplingPeriod in
		// iterator.maybeSampleRead() to control the frequency of read sampling
		// to trigger a read triggered compaction. A value of -1 prevents sampling
		// and disables read triggered compactions. The default is 1 << 4. which
		// gets multiplied with a constant of 1 << 16 to yield 1 << 20 (1MB).
		ReadSamplingMultiplier int64

		// NumDeletionsThreshold defines the minimum number of point tombstones
		// that must be present in a single data block for that block to be
		// considered tombstone-dense for the purposes of triggering a
		// tombstone density compaction. Data blocks may also be considered
		// tombstone-dense if they meet the criteria defined by
		// DeletionSizeRatioThreshold below. Tombstone-dense blocks are identified
		// when sstables are written, and so this is effectively an option for
		// sstable writers. The default value is 100.
		NumDeletionsThreshold int

		// DeletionSizeRatioThreshold defines the minimum ratio of the size of
		// point tombstones to the size of a data block that must be reached
		// for that block to be considered tombstone-dense for the purposes of
		// triggering a tombstone density compaction. Data blocks may also be
		// considered tombstone-dense if they meet the criteria defined by
		// NumDeletionsThreshold above. Tombstone-dense blocks are identified
		// when sstables are written, and so this is effectively an option for
		// sstable writers. The default value is 0.5.
		DeletionSizeRatioThreshold float32

		// TombstoneDenseCompactionThreshold is the minimum percent of data
		// blocks in a table that must be tombstone-dense for that table to be
		// eligible for a tombstone density compaction. It should be defined as a
		// ratio out of 1. The default value is 0.10.
		//
		// If multiple tables are eligible for a tombstone density compaction, then
		// tables with a higher percent of tombstone-dense blocks are still
		// prioritized for compaction.
		//
		// A zero or negative value disables tombstone density compactions.
		TombstoneDenseCompactionThreshold float64

		// FileCacheShards is the number of shards per file cache.
		// Reducing the value can reduce the number of idle goroutines per DB
		// instance which can be useful in scenarios with a lot of DB instances
		// and a large number of CPUs, but doing so can lead to higher contention
		// in the file cache and reduced performance.
		//
		// The default value is the number of logical CPUs, which can be
		// limited by runtime.GOMAXPROCS.
		FileCacheShards int

		// KeyValidationFunc is a function to validate a user key in an SSTable.
		//
		// Currently, this function is used to validate the smallest and largest
		// keys in an SSTable undergoing compaction. In this case, returning an
		// error from the validation function will result in a panic at runtime,
		// given that there is rarely any way of recovering from malformed keys
		// present in compacted files. By default, validation is not performed.
		//
		// Additional use-cases may be added in the future.
		//
		// NOTE: callers should take care to not mutate the key being validated.
		KeyValidationFunc func(userKey []byte) error

		// ValidateOnIngest schedules validation of sstables after they have
		// been ingested.
		//
		// By default, this value is false.
		ValidateOnIngest bool

		// LevelMultiplier configures the size multiplier used to determine the
		// desired size of each level of the LSM. Defaults to 10.
		LevelMultiplier int

		// MultiLevelCompactionHeuristic determines whether to add an additional
		// level to a conventional two level compaction. If nil, a multilevel
		// compaction will never get triggered.
		MultiLevelCompactionHeuristic MultiLevelHeuristic

		// MaxWriterConcurrency is used to indicate the maximum number of
		// compression workers the compression queue is allowed to use. If
		// MaxWriterConcurrency > 0, then the Writer will use parallelism, to
		// compress and write blocks to disk. Otherwise, the writer will
		// compress and write blocks to disk synchronously.
		MaxWriterConcurrency int

		// ForceWriterParallelism is used to force parallelism in the sstable
		// Writer for the metamorphic tests. Even with the MaxWriterConcurrency
		// option set, we only enable parallelism in the sstable Writer if there
		// is enough CPU available, and this option bypasses that.
		ForceWriterParallelism bool

		// CPUWorkPermissionGranter should be set if Pebble should be given the
		// ability to optionally schedule additional CPU. See the documentation
		// for CPUWorkPermissionGranter for more details.
		CPUWorkPermissionGranter CPUWorkPermissionGranter

		// EnableColumnarBlocks is used to decide whether to enable writing
		// TableFormatPebblev5 sstables. This setting is only respected by
		// FormatColumnarBlocks. In lower format major versions, the
		// TableFormatPebblev5 format is prohibited. If EnableColumnarBlocks is
		// nil and the DB is at FormatColumnarBlocks, the DB defaults to not
		// writing columnar blocks.
		EnableColumnarBlocks func() bool

		// EnableValueBlocks is used to decide whether to enable writing
		// TableFormatPebblev3 sstables. This setting is only respected by a
		// specific subset of format major versions: FormatSSTableValueBlocks,
		// FormatFlushableIngest and FormatPrePebblev1MarkedCompacted. In lower
		// format major versions, value blocks are never enabled. In higher
		// format major versions, value blocks are always enabled.
		EnableValueBlocks func() bool

		// ShortAttributeExtractor is used iff EnableValueBlocks() returns true
		// (else ignored). If non-nil, a ShortAttribute can be extracted from the
		// value and stored with the key, when the value is stored elsewhere.
		ShortAttributeExtractor ShortAttributeExtractor

		// RequiredInPlaceValueBound specifies an optional span of user key
		// prefixes that are not-MVCC, but have a suffix. For these the values
		// must be stored with the key, since the concept of "older versions" is
		// not defined. It is also useful for statically known exclusions to value
		// separation. In CockroachDB, this will be used for the lock table key
		// space that has non-empty suffixes, but those locks don't represent
		// actual MVCC versions (the suffix ordering is arbitrary). We will also
		// need to add support for dynamically configured exclusions (we want the
		// default to be to allow Pebble to decide whether to separate the value
		// or not, hence this is structured as exclusions), for example, for users
		// of CockroachDB to dynamically exclude certain tables.
		//
		// Any change in exclusion behavior takes effect only on future written
		// sstables, and does not start rewriting existing sstables.
		//
		// Even ignoring changes in this setting, exclusions are interpreted as a
		// guidance by Pebble, and not necessarily honored. Specifically, user
		// keys with multiple Pebble-versions *may* have the older versions stored
		// in value blocks.
		RequiredInPlaceValueBound UserKeyPrefixBound

		// DisableIngestAsFlushable disables lazy ingestion of sstables through
		// a WAL write and memtable rotation. Only effectual if the format
		// major version is at least `FormatFlushableIngest`.
		DisableIngestAsFlushable func() bool

		// RemoteStorage enables use of remote storage (e.g. S3) for storing
		// sstables. Setting this option enables use of CreateOnShared option and
		// allows ingestion of external files.
		RemoteStorage remote.StorageFactory

		// If CreateOnShared is non-zero, new sstables are created on remote storage
		// (using CreateOnSharedLocator and with the appropriate
		// CreateOnSharedStrategy). These sstables can be shared between different
		// Pebble instances; the lifecycle of such objects is managed by the
		// remote.Storage constructed by options.RemoteStorage.
		//
		// Can only be used when RemoteStorage is set (and recognizes
		// CreateOnSharedLocator).
		CreateOnShared        remote.CreateOnSharedStrategy
		CreateOnSharedLocator remote.Locator

		// CacheSizeBytesBytes is the size of the on-disk block cache for objects
		// on shared storage in bytes. If it is 0, no cache is used.
		SecondaryCacheSizeBytes int64

		// NB: DO NOT crash on SingleDeleteInvariantViolationCallback or
		// IneffectualSingleDeleteCallback, since these can be false positives
		// even if SingleDel has been used correctly.
		//
		// Pebble's delete-only compactions can cause a recent RANGEDEL to peek
		// below an older SINGLEDEL and delete an arbitrary subset of data below
		// that SINGLEDEL. When that SINGLEDEL gets compacted (without the
		// RANGEDEL), any of these callbacks can happen, without it being a real
		// correctness problem.
		//
		// Example 1:
		// RANGEDEL [a, c)#10 in L0
		// SINGLEDEL b#5 in L1
		// SET b#3 in L6
		//
		// If the L6 file containing the SET is narrow and the L1 file containing
		// the SINGLEDEL is wide, a delete-only compaction can remove the file in
		// L2 before the SINGLEDEL is compacted down. Then when the SINGLEDEL is
		// compacted down, it will not find any SET to delete, resulting in the
		// ineffectual callback.
		//
		// Example 2:
		// RANGEDEL [a, z)#60 in L0
		// SINGLEDEL g#50 in L1
		// SET g#40 in L2
		// RANGEDEL [g,h)#30 in L3
		// SET g#20 in L6
		//
		// In this example, the two SETs represent the same user write, and the
		// RANGEDELs are caused by the CockroachDB range being dropped. That is,
		// the user wrote to g once, range was dropped, then added back, which
		// caused the SET again, then at some point g was validly deleted using a
		// SINGLEDEL, and then the range was dropped again. The older RANGEDEL can
		// get fragmented due to compactions it has been part of. Say this L3 file
		// containing the RANGEDEL is very narrow, while the L1, L2, L6 files are
		// wider than the RANGEDEL in L0. Then the RANGEDEL in L3 can be dropped
		// using a delete-only compaction, resulting in an LSM with state:
		//
		// RANGEDEL [a, z)#60 in L0
		// SINGLEDEL g#50 in L1
		// SET g#40 in L2
		// SET g#20 in L6
		//
		// A multi-level compaction involving L1, L2, L6 will cause the invariant
		// violation callback. This example doesn't need multi-level compactions:
		// say there was a Pebble snapshot at g#21 preventing g#20 from being
		// dropped when it meets g#40 in a compaction. That snapshot will not save
		// RANGEDEL [g,h)#30, so we can have:
		//
		// SINGLEDEL g#50 in L1
		// SET g#40, SET g#20 in L6
		//
		// And say the snapshot is removed and then the L1 and L6 compaction
		// happens, resulting in the invariant violation callback.
		//
		// TODO(sumeer): rename SingleDeleteInvariantViolationCallback to remove
		// the word "invariant".

		// IneffectualPointDeleteCallback is called in compactions/flushes if any
		// single delete is being elided without deleting a point set/merge.
		IneffectualSingleDeleteCallback func(userKey []byte)

		// SingleDeleteInvariantViolationCallback is called in compactions/flushes if any
		// single delete has consumed a Set/Merge, and there is another immediately older
		// Set/SetWithDelete/Merge. The user of Pebble has violated the invariant under
		// which SingleDelete can be used correctly.
		//
		// Consider the sequence SingleDelete#3, Set#2, Set#1. There are three
		// ways some of these keys can first meet in a compaction.
		//
		// - All 3 keys in the same compaction: this callback will detect the
		//   violation.
		//
		// - SingleDelete#3, Set#2 meet in a compaction first: Both keys will
		//   disappear. The violation will not be detected, and the DB will have
		//   Set#1 which is likely incorrect (from the user's perspective).
		//
		// - Set#2, Set#1 meet in a compaction first: The output will be Set#2,
		//   which will later be consumed by SingleDelete#3. The violation will
		//   not be detected and the DB will be correct.
		SingleDeleteInvariantViolationCallback func(userKey []byte)

		// EnableDeleteOnlyCompactionExcises enables delete-only compactions to also
		// apply delete-only compaction hints on sstables that partially overlap
		// with it. This application happens through an excise, similar to
		// the excise phase of IngestAndExcise.
		EnableDeleteOnlyCompactionExcises func() bool

		// CompactionLimiter, if set, is used to limit concurrent compactions as well
		// as to pace compactions and flushing compactions already chosen. If nil,
		// no limiting or pacing happens other than that controlled by other options
		// like L0CompactionConcurrency and CompactionDebtConcurrency.
		CompactionLimiter CompactionLimiter
	}

	// Filters is a map from filter policy name to filter policy. It is used for
	// debugging tools which may be used on multiple databases configured with
	// different filter policies. It is not necessary to populate this filters
	// map during normal usage of a DB (it will be done automatically by
	// EnsureDefaults).
	Filters map[string]FilterPolicy

	// FlushDelayDeleteRange configures how long the database should wait before
	// forcing a flush of a memtable that contains a range deletion. Disk space
	// cannot be reclaimed until the range deletion is flushed. No automatic
	// flush occurs if zero.
	FlushDelayDeleteRange time.Duration

	// FlushDelayRangeKey configures how long the database should wait before
	// forcing a flush of a memtable that contains a range key. Range keys in
	// the memtable prevent lazy combined iteration, so it's desirable to flush
	// range keys promptly. No automatic flush occurs if zero.
	FlushDelayRangeKey time.Duration

	// FlushSplitBytes denotes the target number of bytes per sublevel in
	// each flush split interval (i.e. range between two flush split keys)
	// in L0 sstables. When set to zero, only a single sstable is generated
	// by each flush. When set to a non-zero value, flushes are split at
	// points to meet L0's TargetFileSize, any grandparent-related overlap
	// options, and at boundary keys of L0 flush split intervals (which are
	// targeted to contain around FlushSplitBytes bytes in each sublevel
	// between pairs of boundary keys). Splitting sstables during flush
	// allows increased compaction flexibility and concurrency when those
	// tables are compacted to lower levels.
	FlushSplitBytes int64

	// FormatMajorVersion sets the format of on-disk files. It is
	// recommended to set the format major version to an explicit
	// version, as the default may change over time.
	//
	// At Open if the existing database is formatted using a later
	// format major version that is known to this version of Pebble,
	// Pebble will continue to use the later format major version. If
	// the existing database's version is unknown, the caller may use
	// FormatMostCompatible and will be able to open the database
	// regardless of its actual version.
	//
	// If the existing database is formatted using a format major
	// version earlier than the one specified, Open will automatically
	// ratchet the database to the specified format major version.
	FormatMajorVersion FormatMajorVersion

	// FS provides the interface for persistent file storage.
	//
	// The default value uses the underlying operating system's file system.
	FS vfs.FS

	// KeySchema is the name of the key schema that should be used when writing
	// new sstables. There must be a key schema with this name defined in
	// KeySchemas. If not set, colblk.DefaultKeySchema is used to construct a
	// default key schema.
	KeySchema string

	// KeySchemas defines the set of known schemas of user keys. When columnar
	// blocks are in use (see FormatColumnarBlocks), the user may specify how a
	// key should be decomposed into columns. Each KeySchema must have a unique
	// name. The schema named by Options.KeySchema is used while writing
	// sstables during flushes and compactions.
	//
	// Multiple KeySchemas may be used over the lifetime of a database. Once a
	// KeySchema is used, it must be provided in KeySchemas in subsequent calls
	// to Open for perpetuity.
	KeySchemas sstable.KeySchemas

	// Lock, if set, must be a database lock acquired through LockDirectory for
	// the same directory passed to Open. If provided, Open will skip locking
	// the directory. Closing the database will not release the lock, and it's
	// the responsibility of the caller to release the lock after closing the
	// database.
	//
	// Open will enforce that the Lock passed locks the same directory passed to
	// Open. Concurrent calls to Open using the same Lock are detected and
	// prohibited.
	Lock *Lock

	// The count of L0 files necessary to trigger an L0 compaction.
	L0CompactionFileThreshold int

	// The amount of L0 read-amplification necessary to trigger an L0 compaction.
	L0CompactionThreshold int

	// Hard limit on L0 read-amplification, computed as the number of L0
	// sublevels. Writes are stopped when this threshold is reached.
	L0StopWritesThreshold int

	// The maximum number of bytes for LBase. The base level is the level which
	// L0 is compacted into. The base level is determined dynamically based on
	// the existing data in the LSM. The maximum number of bytes for other levels
	// is computed dynamically based on the base level's maximum size. When the
	// maximum number of bytes for a level is exceeded, compaction is requested.
	LBaseMaxBytes int64

	// Per-level options. Options for at least one level must be specified. The
	// options for the last level are used for all subsequent levels.
	Levels []LevelOptions

	// LoggerAndTracer will be used, if non-nil, else Logger will be used and
	// tracing will be a noop.

	// Logger used to write log messages.
	//
	// The default logger uses the Go standard library log package.
	Logger Logger
	// LoggerAndTracer is used for writing log messages and traces.
	LoggerAndTracer LoggerAndTracer

	// MaxManifestFileSize is the maximum size the MANIFEST file is allowed to
	// become. When the MANIFEST exceeds this size it is rolled over and a new
	// MANIFEST is created.
	MaxManifestFileSize int64

	// MaxOpenFiles is a soft limit on the number of open files that can be
	// used by the DB.
	//
	// The default value is 1000.
	MaxOpenFiles int

	// The size of a MemTable in steady state. The actual MemTable size starts at
	// min(256KB, MemTableSize) and doubles for each subsequent MemTable up to
	// MemTableSize. This reduces the memory pressure caused by MemTables for
	// short lived (test) DB instances. Note that more than one MemTable can be
	// in existence since flushing a MemTable involves creating a new one and
	// writing the contents of the old one in the
	// background. MemTableStopWritesThreshold places a hard limit on the size of
	// the queued MemTables.
	//
	// The default value is 4MB.
	MemTableSize uint64

	// Hard limit on the number of queued of MemTables. Writes are stopped when
	// the sum of the queued memtable sizes exceeds:
	//   MemTableStopWritesThreshold * MemTableSize.
	//
	// This value should be at least 2 or writes will stop whenever a MemTable is
	// being flushed.
	//
	// The default value is 2.
	MemTableStopWritesThreshold int

	// Merger defines the associative merge operation to use for merging values
	// written with {Batch,DB}.Merge.
	//
	// The default merger concatenates values.
	Merger *Merger

	// MaxConcurrentCompactions specifies the maximum number of concurrent
	// compactions (not including download compactions).
	//
	// Concurrent compactions are performed:
	//  - when L0 read-amplification passes the L0CompactionConcurrency threshold;
	//  - for automatic background compactions;
	//  - when a manual compaction for a level is split and parallelized.
	//
	// MaxConcurrentCompactions() must be greater than 0.
	//
	// The default value is 1.
	MaxConcurrentCompactions func() int

	// MaxConcurrentDownloads specifies the maximum number of download
	// compactions. These are compactions that copy an external file to the local
	// store.
	//
	// This limit is independent of MaxConcurrentCompactions; at any point in
	// time, we may be running MaxConcurrentCompactions non-download compactions
	// and MaxConcurrentDownloads download compactions.
	//
	// MaxConcurrentDownloads() must be greater than 0.
	//
	// The default value is 1.
	MaxConcurrentDownloads func() int

	// DisableAutomaticCompactions dictates whether automatic compactions are
	// scheduled or not. The default is false (enabled). This option is only used
	// externally when running a manual compaction, and internally for tests.
	DisableAutomaticCompactions bool

	// DisableConsistencyCheck disables the consistency check that is performed on
	// open. Should only be used when a database cannot be opened normally (e.g.
	// some of the tables don't exist / aren't accessible).
	DisableConsistencyCheck bool

	// DisableTableStats dictates whether tables should be loaded asynchronously
	// to compute statistics that inform compaction heuristics. The collection
	// of table stats improves compaction of tombstones, reclaiming disk space
	// more quickly and in some cases reducing write amplification in the
	// presence of tombstones. Disabling table stats may be useful in tests
	// that require determinism as the asynchronicity of table stats collection
	// introduces significant nondeterminism.
	DisableTableStats bool

	// NoSyncOnClose decides whether the Pebble instance will enforce a
	// close-time synchronization (e.g., fdatasync() or sync_file_range())
	// on files it writes to. Setting this to true removes the guarantee for a
	// sync on close. Some implementations can still issue a non-blocking sync.
	NoSyncOnClose bool

	// NumPrevManifest is the number of non-current or older manifests which
	// we want to keep around for debugging purposes. By default, we're going
	// to keep one older manifest.
	NumPrevManifest int

	// ReadOnly indicates that the DB should be opened in read-only mode. Writes
	// to the DB will return an error, background compactions are disabled, and
	// the flush that normally occurs after replaying the WAL at startup is
	// disabled.
	ReadOnly bool

	// FileCache is an initialized FileCache which should be set as an
	// option if the DB needs to be initialized with a pre-existing file cache.
	// If FileCache is nil, then a file cache which is unique to the DB instance
	// is created. FileCache can be shared between db instances by setting it here.
	// The FileCache set here must use the same underlying cache as Options.Cache
	// and pebble will panic otherwise.
	FileCache *FileCache

	// BlockPropertyCollectors is a list of BlockPropertyCollector creation
	// functions. A new BlockPropertyCollector is created for each sstable
	// built and lives for the lifetime of writing that table.
	BlockPropertyCollectors []func() BlockPropertyCollector

	// WALBytesPerSync sets the number of bytes to write to a WAL before calling
	// Sync on it in the background. Just like with BytesPerSync above, this
	// helps smooth out disk write latencies, and avoids cases where the OS
	// writes a lot of buffered data to disk at once. However, this is less
	// necessary with WALs, as many write operations already pass in
	// Sync = true.
	//
	// The default value is 0, i.e. no background syncing. This matches the
	// default behaviour in RocksDB.
	WALBytesPerSync int

	// WALDir specifies the directory to store write-ahead logs (WALs) in. If
	// empty (the default), WALs will be stored in the same directory as sstables
	// (i.e. the directory passed to pebble.Open).
	WALDir string

	// WALFailover may be set to configure Pebble to monitor writes to its
	// write-ahead log and failover to writing write-ahead log entries to a
	// secondary location (eg, a separate physical disk). WALFailover may be
	// used to improve write availability in the presence of transient disk
	// unavailability.
	WALFailover *WALFailoverOptions

	// WALRecoveryDirs is a list of additional directories that should be
	// scanned for the existence of additional write-ahead logs. WALRecoveryDirs
	// is expected to be used when starting Pebble with a new WALDir or a new
	// WALFailover configuration. The directories associated with the previous
	// configuration may still contain WALs that are required for recovery of
	// the current database state.
	//
	// If a previous WAL configuration may have stored WALs elsewhere but there
	// is not a corresponding entry in WALRecoveryDirs, Open will error.
	WALRecoveryDirs []wal.Dir

	// WALMinSyncInterval is the minimum duration between syncs of the WAL. If
	// WAL syncs are requested faster than this interval, they will be
	// artificially delayed. Introducing a small artificial delay (500us) between
	// WAL syncs can allow more operations to arrive and reduce IO operations
	// while having a minimal impact on throughput. This option is supplied as a
	// closure in order to allow the value to be changed dynamically. The default
	// value is 0.
	//
	// TODO(peter): rather than a closure, should there be another mechanism for
	// changing options dynamically?
	WALMinSyncInterval func() time.Duration

	// TargetByteDeletionRate is the rate (in bytes per second) at which sstable file
	// deletions are limited to (under normal circumstances).
	//
	// Deletion pacing is used to slow down deletions when compactions finish up
	// or readers close and newly-obsolete files need cleaning up. Deleting lots
	// of files at once can cause disk latency to go up on some SSDs, which this
	// functionality guards against.
	//
	// This value is only a best-effort target; the effective rate can be
	// higher if deletions are falling behind or disk space is running low.
	//
	// Setting this to 0 disables deletion pacing, which is also the default.
	TargetByteDeletionRate int

	// EnableSQLRowSpillMetrics specifies whether the Pebble instance will only be used
	// to temporarily persist data spilled to disk for row-oriented SQL query execution.
	EnableSQLRowSpillMetrics bool

	// AllocatorSizeClasses provides a sorted list containing the supported size
	// classes of the underlying memory allocator. This provides hints to the
	// sstable block writer's flushing policy to select block sizes that
	// preemptively reduce internal fragmentation when loaded into the block cache.
	AllocatorSizeClasses []int

	// private options are only used by internal tests or are used internally
	// for facilitating upgrade paths of unconfigurable functionality.
	private struct {
		// disableDeleteOnlyCompactions prevents the scheduling of delete-only
		// compactions that drop sstables wholy covered by range tombstones or
		// range key tombstones.
		disableDeleteOnlyCompactions bool

		// disableElisionOnlyCompactions prevents the scheduling of elision-only
		// compactions that rewrite sstables in place in order to elide obsolete
		// keys.
		disableElisionOnlyCompactions bool

		// disableLazyCombinedIteration is a private option used by the
		// metamorphic tests to test equivalence between lazy-combined iteration
		// and constructing the range-key iterator upfront. It's a private
		// option to avoid littering the public interface with options that we
		// do not want to allow users to actually configure.
		disableLazyCombinedIteration bool

		// testingAlwaysWaitForCleanup is set by some tests to force waiting for
		// obsolete file deletion (to make events deterministic).
		testingAlwaysWaitForCleanup bool

		// fsCloser holds a closer that should be invoked after a DB using these
		// Options is closed. This is used to automatically stop the
		// long-running goroutine associated with the disk-health-checking FS.
		// See the initialization of FS in EnsureDefaults. Note that care has
		// been taken to ensure that it is still safe to continue using the FS
		// after this closer has been invoked. However, if write operations
		// against the FS are made after the DB is closed, the FS may leak a
		// goroutine indefinitely.
		fsCloser io.Closer
	}
}

// WALFailoverOptions configures the WAL failover mechanics to use during
// transient write unavailability on the primary WAL volume.
type WALFailoverOptions struct {
	// Secondary indicates the secondary directory and VFS to use in the event a
	// write to the primary WAL stalls.
	Secondary wal.Dir
	// FailoverOptions provides configuration of the thresholds and intervals
	// involved in WAL failover. If any of its fields are left unspecified,
	// reasonable defaults will be used.
	wal.FailoverOptions
}

// ReadaheadConfig controls the use of read-ahead.
type ReadaheadConfig = objstorageprovider.ReadaheadConfig

// JemallocSizeClasses exports sstable.JemallocSizeClasses.
var JemallocSizeClasses = sstable.JemallocSizeClasses

// DebugCheckLevels calls CheckLevels on the provided database.
// It may be set in the DebugCheck field of Options to check
// level invariants whenever a new version is installed.
func DebugCheckLevels(db *DB) error {
	return db.CheckLevels(nil)
}

// EnsureDefaults ensures that the default values for all options are set if a
// valid value was not already specified. Returns the new options.
func (o *Options) EnsureDefaults() *Options {
	if o == nil {
		o = &Options{}
	}
	o.Comparer = o.Comparer.EnsureDefaults()

	if o.BytesPerSync <= 0 {
		o.BytesPerSync = 512 << 10 // 512 KB
	}
	if o.Cleaner == nil {
		o.Cleaner = DeleteCleaner{}
	}

	if o.Experimental.DisableIngestAsFlushable == nil {
		o.Experimental.DisableIngestAsFlushable = func() bool { return false }
	}
	if o.Experimental.L0CompactionConcurrency <= 0 {
		o.Experimental.L0CompactionConcurrency = 10
	}
	if o.Experimental.CompactionDebtConcurrency <= 0 {
		o.Experimental.CompactionDebtConcurrency = 1 << 30 // 1 GB
	}
	if o.Experimental.CompactionLimiter == nil {
		o.Experimental.CompactionLimiter = &base.DefaultCompactionLimiter{}
	}
	if o.Experimental.KeyValidationFunc == nil {
		o.Experimental.KeyValidationFunc = func([]byte) error { return nil }
	}
	if o.KeySchema == "" && len(o.KeySchemas) == 0 {
		ks := colblk.DefaultKeySchema(o.Comparer, 16 /* bundleSize */)
		o.KeySchema = ks.Name
		o.KeySchemas = sstable.MakeKeySchemas(&ks)
	}
	if o.L0CompactionThreshold <= 0 {
		o.L0CompactionThreshold = 4
	}
	if o.L0CompactionFileThreshold <= 0 {
		// Some justification for the default of 500:
		// Why not smaller?:
		// - The default target file size for L0 is 2MB, so 500 files is <= 1GB
		//   of data. At observed compaction speeds of > 20MB/s, L0 can be
		//   cleared of all files in < 1min, so this backlog is not huge.
		// - 500 files is low overhead for instantiating L0 sublevels from
		//   scratch.
		// - Lower values were observed to cause excessive and inefficient
		//   compactions out of L0 in a TPCC import benchmark.
		// Why not larger?:
		// - More than 1min to compact everything out of L0.
		// - CockroachDB's admission control system uses a threshold of 1000
		//   files to start throttling writes to Pebble. Using 500 here gives
		//   us headroom between when Pebble should start compacting L0 and
		//   when the admission control threshold is reached.
		//
		// We can revisit this default in the future based on better
		// experimental understanding.
		//
		// TODO(jackson): Experiment with slightly lower thresholds [or higher
		// admission control thresholds] to see whether a higher L0 score at the
		// threshold (currently 2.0) is necessary for some workloads to avoid
		// starving L0 in favor of lower-level compactions.
		o.L0CompactionFileThreshold = 500
	}
	if o.L0StopWritesThreshold <= 0 {
		o.L0StopWritesThreshold = 12
	}
	if o.LBaseMaxBytes <= 0 {
		o.LBaseMaxBytes = 64 << 20 // 64 MB
	}
	if o.Levels == nil {
		o.Levels = make([]LevelOptions, 1)
		for i := range o.Levels {
			if i > 0 {
				l := &o.Levels[i]
				if l.TargetFileSize <= 0 {
					l.TargetFileSize = o.Levels[i-1].TargetFileSize * 2
				}
			}
			o.Levels[i].EnsureDefaults()
		}
	} else {
		for i := range o.Levels {
			o.Levels[i].EnsureDefaults()
		}
	}
	if o.Logger == nil {
		o.Logger = DefaultLogger
	}
	if o.EventListener == nil {
		o.EventListener = &EventListener{}
	}
	o.EventListener.EnsureDefaults(o.Logger)
	if o.MaxManifestFileSize == 0 {
		o.MaxManifestFileSize = 128 << 20 // 128 MB
	}
	if o.MaxOpenFiles == 0 {
		o.MaxOpenFiles = 1000
	}
	if o.MemTableSize <= 0 {
		o.MemTableSize = 4 << 20 // 4 MB
	}
	if o.MemTableStopWritesThreshold <= 0 {
		o.MemTableStopWritesThreshold = 2
	}
	if o.Merger == nil {
		o.Merger = DefaultMerger
	}
	if o.MaxConcurrentCompactions == nil {
		o.MaxConcurrentCompactions = func() int { return 1 }
	}
	if o.MaxConcurrentDownloads == nil {
		o.MaxConcurrentDownloads = func() int { return 1 }
	}
	if o.NumPrevManifest <= 0 {
		o.NumPrevManifest = 1
	}

	if o.FormatMajorVersion == FormatDefault {
		o.FormatMajorVersion = FormatMinSupported
		if o.Experimental.CreateOnShared != remote.CreateOnSharedNone {
			o.FormatMajorVersion = FormatMinForSharedObjects
		}
	}

	if o.FS == nil {
		o.WithFSDefaults()
	}
	if o.FlushSplitBytes <= 0 {
		o.FlushSplitBytes = 2 * o.Levels[0].TargetFileSize
	}
	if o.WALFailover != nil {
		o.WALFailover.FailoverOptions.EnsureDefaults()
	}
	if o.Experimental.LevelMultiplier <= 0 {
		o.Experimental.LevelMultiplier = defaultLevelMultiplier
	}
	if o.Experimental.ReadCompactionRate == 0 {
		o.Experimental.ReadCompactionRate = 16000
	}
	if o.Experimental.ReadSamplingMultiplier == 0 {
		o.Experimental.ReadSamplingMultiplier = 1 << 4
	}
	if o.Experimental.NumDeletionsThreshold == 0 {
		o.Experimental.NumDeletionsThreshold = sstable.DefaultNumDeletionsThreshold
	}
	if o.Experimental.DeletionSizeRatioThreshold == 0 {
		o.Experimental.DeletionSizeRatioThreshold = sstable.DefaultDeletionSizeRatioThreshold
	}
	if o.Experimental.TombstoneDenseCompactionThreshold == 0 {
		o.Experimental.TombstoneDenseCompactionThreshold = 0.10
	}
	if o.Experimental.FileCacheShards <= 0 {
		o.Experimental.FileCacheShards = runtime.GOMAXPROCS(0)
	}
	if o.Experimental.CPUWorkPermissionGranter == nil {
		o.Experimental.CPUWorkPermissionGranter = defaultCPUWorkGranter{}
	}
	if o.Experimental.MultiLevelCompactionHeuristic == nil {
		o.Experimental.MultiLevelCompactionHeuristic = WriteAmpHeuristic{}
	}

	o.initMaps()
	return o
}

// WithFSDefaults configures the Options to wrap the configured filesystem with
// the default virtual file system middleware, like disk-health checking.
func (o *Options) WithFSDefaults() *Options {
	if o.FS == nil {
		o.FS = vfs.Default
	}
	o.FS, o.private.fsCloser = vfs.WithDiskHealthChecks(o.FS, 5*time.Second, nil,
		func(info vfs.DiskSlowInfo) {
			o.EventListener.DiskSlow(info)
		})
	return o
}

// AddEventListener adds the provided event listener to the Options, in addition
// to any existing event listener.
func (o *Options) AddEventListener(l EventListener) {
	if o.EventListener != nil {
		l = TeeEventListener(l, *o.EventListener)
	}
	o.EventListener = &l
}

// initMaps initializes the Comparers, Filters, and Mergers maps.
func (o *Options) initMaps() {
	for i := range o.Levels {
		l := &o.Levels[i]
		if l.FilterPolicy != nil {
			if o.Filters == nil {
				o.Filters = make(map[string]FilterPolicy)
			}
			name := l.FilterPolicy.Name()
			if _, ok := o.Filters[name]; !ok {
				o.Filters[name] = l.FilterPolicy
			}
		}
	}
}

// Level returns the LevelOptions for the specified level.
func (o *Options) Level(level int) LevelOptions {
	if level < len(o.Levels) {
		return o.Levels[level]
	}
	n := len(o.Levels) - 1
	l := o.Levels[n]
	for i := n; i < level; i++ {
		l.TargetFileSize *= 2
	}
	return l
}

// Clone creates a shallow-copy of the supplied options.
func (o *Options) Clone() *Options {
	n := &Options{}
	if o != nil {
		*n = *o
	}
	return n
}

func filterPolicyName(p FilterPolicy) string {
	if p == nil {
		return "none"
	}
	return p.Name()
}

func (o *Options) String() string {
	var buf bytes.Buffer

	cacheSize := int64(cacheDefaultSize)
	if o.Cache != nil {
		cacheSize = o.Cache.MaxSize()
	}

	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "[Version]\n")
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  pebble_version=0.1\n")
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "\n")
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "[Options]\n")
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  bytes_per_sync=%d\n", o.BytesPerSync)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  cache_size=%d\n", cacheSize)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  cleaner=%s\n", o.Cleaner)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  compaction_debt_concurrency=%d\n", o.Experimental.CompactionDebtConcurrency)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  comparer=%s\n", o.Comparer.Name)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  disable_wal=%t\n", o.DisableWAL)
	if o.Experimental.DisableIngestAsFlushable != nil && o.Experimental.DisableIngestAsFlushable() {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  disable_ingest_as_flushable=%t\n", true)
	}
	if o.Experimental.EnableColumnarBlocks != nil && o.Experimental.EnableColumnarBlocks() {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  enable_columnar_blocks=%t\n", true)
	}
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  flush_delay_delete_range=%s\n", o.FlushDelayDeleteRange)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  flush_delay_range_key=%s\n", o.FlushDelayRangeKey)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  flush_split_bytes=%d\n", o.FlushSplitBytes)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  format_major_version=%d\n", o.FormatMajorVersion)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  key_schema=%s\n", o.KeySchema)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  l0_compaction_concurrency=%d\n", o.Experimental.L0CompactionConcurrency)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  l0_compaction_file_threshold=%d\n", o.L0CompactionFileThreshold)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  l0_compaction_threshold=%d\n", o.L0CompactionThreshold)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  l0_stop_writes_threshold=%d\n", o.L0StopWritesThreshold)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  lbase_max_bytes=%d\n", o.LBaseMaxBytes)
	if o.Experimental.LevelMultiplier != defaultLevelMultiplier {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  level_multiplier=%d\n", o.Experimental.LevelMultiplier)
	}
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  max_concurrent_compactions=%d\n", o.MaxConcurrentCompactions())
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  max_concurrent_downloads=%d\n", o.MaxConcurrentDownloads())
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  max_manifest_file_size=%d\n", o.MaxManifestFileSize)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  max_open_files=%d\n", o.MaxOpenFiles)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  mem_table_size=%d\n", o.MemTableSize)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  mem_table_stop_writes_threshold=%d\n", o.MemTableStopWritesThreshold)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  min_deletion_rate=%d\n", o.TargetByteDeletionRate)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  merger=%s\n", o.Merger.Name)
	if o.Experimental.MultiLevelCompactionHeuristic != nil {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  multilevel_compaction_heuristic=%s\n", o.Experimental.MultiLevelCompactionHeuristic.String())
	}
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  read_compaction_rate=%d\n", o.Experimental.ReadCompactionRate)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  read_sampling_multiplier=%d\n", o.Experimental.ReadSamplingMultiplier)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  num_deletions_threshold=%d\n", o.Experimental.NumDeletionsThreshold)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  deletion_size_ratio_threshold=%f\n", o.Experimental.DeletionSizeRatioThreshold)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  tombstone_dense_compaction_threshold=%f\n", o.Experimental.TombstoneDenseCompactionThreshold)
	// We no longer care about strict_wal_tail, but set it to true in case an
	// older version reads the options.
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  strict_wal_tail=%t\n", true)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  table_cache_shards=%d\n", o.Experimental.FileCacheShards)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  validate_on_ingest=%t\n", o.Experimental.ValidateOnIngest)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  wal_dir=%s\n", o.WALDir)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  wal_bytes_per_sync=%d\n", o.WALBytesPerSync)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  max_writer_concurrency=%d\n", o.Experimental.MaxWriterConcurrency)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  force_writer_parallelism=%t\n", o.Experimental.ForceWriterParallelism)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  secondary_cache_size_bytes=%d\n", o.Experimental.SecondaryCacheSizeBytes)
	fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  create_on_shared=%d\n", o.Experimental.CreateOnShared)

	// Private options.
	//
	// These options are only encoded if true, because we do not want them to
	// appear in production serialized Options files, since they're testing-only
	// options. They're only serialized when true, which still ensures that the
	// metamorphic tests may propagate them to subprocesses.
	if o.private.disableDeleteOnlyCompactions {
		fmt.Fprintln(&buf, "  disable_delete_only_compactions=true")
	}
	if o.private.disableElisionOnlyCompactions {
		fmt.Fprintln(&buf, "  disable_elision_only_compactions=true")
	}
	if o.private.disableLazyCombinedIteration {
		fmt.Fprintln(&buf, "  disable_lazy_combined_iteration=true")
	}

	if o.WALFailover != nil {
		unhealthyThreshold, _ := o.WALFailover.FailoverOptions.UnhealthyOperationLatencyThreshold()
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "\n")
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "[WAL Failover]\n")
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  secondary_dir=%s\n", o.WALFailover.Secondary.Dirname)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  primary_dir_probe_interval=%s\n", o.WALFailover.FailoverOptions.PrimaryDirProbeInterval)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  healthy_probe_latency_threshold=%s\n", o.WALFailover.FailoverOptions.HealthyProbeLatencyThreshold)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  healthy_interval=%s\n", o.WALFailover.FailoverOptions.HealthyInterval)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  unhealthy_sampling_interval=%s\n", o.WALFailover.FailoverOptions.UnhealthySamplingInterval)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  unhealthy_operation_latency_threshold=%s\n", unhealthyThreshold)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  elevated_write_stall_threshold_lag=%s\n", o.WALFailover.FailoverOptions.ElevatedWriteStallThresholdLag)
	}

	for i := range o.Levels {
		l := &o.Levels[i]
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "\n")
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "[Level \"%d\"]\n", i)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  block_restart_interval=%d\n", l.BlockRestartInterval)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  block_size=%d\n", l.BlockSize)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  block_size_threshold=%d\n", l.BlockSizeThreshold)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  compression=%s\n", resolveDefaultCompression(l.Compression()))
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  filter_policy=%s\n", filterPolicyName(l.FilterPolicy))
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  filter_type=%s\n", l.FilterType)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  index_block_size=%d\n", l.IndexBlockSize)
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "  target_file_size=%d\n", l.TargetFileSize)
	}

	return buf.String()
}

type parseOptionsFuncs struct {
	visitNewSection          func(i, j int, section string) error
	visitKeyValue            func(i, j int, section, key, value string) error
	visitCommentOrWhitespace func(i, j int, whitespace string) error
}

// parseOptions takes options serialized by Options.String() and parses them
// into keys and values. It calls fns.visitNewSection for the beginning of each
// new section, fns.visitKeyValue for each key-value pair, and
// visitCommentOrWhitespace for comments and whitespace between key-value pairs.
func parseOptions(s string, fns parseOptionsFuncs) error {
	var section, mappedSection string
	i := 0
	for i < len(s) {
		rem := s[i:]
		j := strings.IndexByte(rem, '\n')
		if j < 0 {
			j = len(rem)
		} else {
			j += 1 // Include the newline.
		}
		line := strings.TrimSpace(s[i : i+j])
		startOff, endOff := i, i+j
		i += j

		if len(line) == 0 || line[0] == ';' || line[0] == '#' {
			// Skip blank lines and comments.
			if fns.visitCommentOrWhitespace != nil {
				if err := fns.visitCommentOrWhitespace(startOff, endOff, line); err != nil {
					return err
				}
			}
			continue
		}
		n := len(line)
		if line[0] == '[' && line[n-1] == ']' {
			// Parse section.
			section = line[1 : n-1]
			// RocksDB uses a similar (INI-style) syntax for the OPTIONS file, but
			// different section names and keys. The "CFOptions ..." paths are the
			// RocksDB versions which we map to the Pebble paths.
			mappedSection = section
			if section == `CFOptions "default"` {
				mappedSection = "Options"
			}
			if fns.visitNewSection != nil {
				if err := fns.visitNewSection(startOff, endOff, mappedSection); err != nil {
					return err
				}
			}
			continue
		}

		pos := strings.Index(line, "=")
		if pos < 0 {
			const maxLen = 50
			if len(line) > maxLen {
				line = line[:maxLen-3] + "..."
			}
			return base.CorruptionErrorf("invalid key=value syntax: %q", errors.Safe(line))
		}

		key := strings.TrimSpace(line[:pos])
		value := strings.TrimSpace(line[pos+1:])

		if section == `CFOptions "default"` {
			switch key {
			case "comparator":
				key = "comparer"
			case "merge_operator":
				key = "merger"
			}
		}
		if fns.visitKeyValue != nil {
			if err := fns.visitKeyValue(startOff, endOff, mappedSection, key, value); err != nil {
				return err
			}
		}
	}
	return nil
}

// ParseHooks contains callbacks to create options fields which can have
// user-defined implementations.
type ParseHooks struct {
	NewCache        func(size int64) *Cache
	NewCleaner      func(name string) (Cleaner, error)
	NewComparer     func(name string) (*Comparer, error)
	NewFilterPolicy func(name string) (FilterPolicy, error)
	NewKeySchema    func(name string) (KeySchema, error)
	NewMerger       func(name string) (*Merger, error)
	SkipUnknown     func(name, value string) bool
}

// Parse parses the options from the specified string. Note that certain
// options cannot be parsed into populated fields. For example, comparer and
// merger.
func (o *Options) Parse(s string, hooks *ParseHooks) error {
	visitKeyValue := func(i, j int, section, key, value string) error {
		// WARNING: DO NOT remove entries from the switches below because doing so
		// causes a key previously written to the OPTIONS file to be considered unknown,
		// a backwards incompatible change. Instead, leave in support for parsing the
		// key but simply don't parse the value.

		parseComparer := func(name string) (*Comparer, error) {
			switch name {
			case DefaultComparer.Name:
				return DefaultComparer, nil
			case testkeys.Comparer.Name:
				return testkeys.Comparer, nil
			default:
				if hooks != nil && hooks.NewComparer != nil {
					return hooks.NewComparer(name)
				}
				return nil, nil
			}
		}

		switch {
		case section == "Version":
			switch key {
			case "pebble_version":
			default:
				if hooks != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown(section+"."+key, value) {
					return nil
				}
				return errors.Errorf("pebble: unknown option: %s.%s",
					errors.Safe(section), errors.Safe(key))
			}
			return nil

		case section == "Options":
			var err error
			switch key {
			case "bytes_per_sync":
				o.BytesPerSync, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "cache_size":
				var n int64
				n, err = strconv.ParseInt(value, 10, 64)
				if err == nil && hooks != nil && hooks.NewCache != nil {
					if o.Cache != nil {
						o.Cache.Unref()
					}
					o.Cache = hooks.NewCache(n)
				}
				// We avoid calling cache.New in parsing because it makes it
				// too easy to leak a cache.
			case "cleaner":
				switch value {
				case "archive":
					o.Cleaner = ArchiveCleaner{}
				case "delete":
					o.Cleaner = DeleteCleaner{}
				default:
					if hooks != nil && hooks.NewCleaner != nil {
						o.Cleaner, err = hooks.NewCleaner(value)
					}
				}
			case "comparer":
				var comparer *Comparer
				comparer, err = parseComparer(value)
				if comparer != nil {
					o.Comparer = comparer
				}
			case "compaction_debt_concurrency":
				o.Experimental.CompactionDebtConcurrency, err = strconv.ParseUint(value, 10, 64)
			case "delete_range_flush_delay":
				// NB: This is a deprecated serialization of the
				// `flush_delay_delete_range`.
				o.FlushDelayDeleteRange, err = time.ParseDuration(value)
			case "disable_delete_only_compactions":
				o.private.disableDeleteOnlyCompactions, err = strconv.ParseBool(value)
			case "disable_elision_only_compactions":
				o.private.disableElisionOnlyCompactions, err = strconv.ParseBool(value)
			case "disable_ingest_as_flushable":
				var v bool
				v, err = strconv.ParseBool(value)
				if err == nil {
					o.Experimental.DisableIngestAsFlushable = func() bool { return v }
				}
			case "disable_lazy_combined_iteration":
				o.private.disableLazyCombinedIteration, err = strconv.ParseBool(value)
			case "disable_wal":
				o.DisableWAL, err = strconv.ParseBool(value)
			case "enable_columnar_blocks":
				var v bool
				if v, err = strconv.ParseBool(value); err == nil {
					o.Experimental.EnableColumnarBlocks = func() bool { return v }
				}
			case "flush_delay_delete_range":
				o.FlushDelayDeleteRange, err = time.ParseDuration(value)
			case "flush_delay_range_key":
				o.FlushDelayRangeKey, err = time.ParseDuration(value)
			case "flush_split_bytes":
				o.FlushSplitBytes, err = strconv.ParseInt(value, 10, 64)
			case "format_major_version":
				// NB: The version written here may be stale. Open does
				// not use the format major version encoded in the
				// OPTIONS file other than to validate that the encoded
				// version is valid right here.
				var v uint64
				v, err = strconv.ParseUint(value, 10, 64)
				if vers := FormatMajorVersion(v); vers > internalFormatNewest || vers == FormatDefault {
					err = errors.Newf("unsupported format major version %d", o.FormatMajorVersion)
				}
				if err == nil {
					o.FormatMajorVersion = FormatMajorVersion(v)
				}
			case "key_schema":
				o.KeySchema = value
				if o.KeySchemas == nil {
					o.KeySchemas = make(map[string]*KeySchema)
				}
				if _, ok := o.KeySchemas[o.KeySchema]; !ok {
					if strings.HasPrefix(value, "DefaultKeySchema(") && strings.HasSuffix(value, ")") {
						argsStr := strings.TrimSuffix(strings.TrimPrefix(value, "DefaultKeySchema("), ")")
						args := strings.FieldsFunc(argsStr, func(r rune) bool {
							return unicode.IsSpace(r) || r == ','
						})
						var comparer *base.Comparer
						var bundleSize int
						comparer, err = parseComparer(args[0])
						if err == nil {
							bundleSize, err = strconv.Atoi(args[1])
						}
						if err == nil {
							schema := colblk.DefaultKeySchema(comparer, bundleSize)
							o.KeySchema = schema.Name
							o.KeySchemas[o.KeySchema] = &schema
						}
					} else if hooks != nil && hooks.NewKeySchema != nil {
						var schema KeySchema
						schema, err = hooks.NewKeySchema(value)
						if err == nil {
							o.KeySchemas[value] = &schema
						}
					}
				}
			case "l0_compaction_concurrency":
				o.Experimental.L0CompactionConcurrency, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "l0_compaction_file_threshold":
				o.L0CompactionFileThreshold, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "l0_compaction_threshold":
				o.L0CompactionThreshold, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "l0_stop_writes_threshold":
				o.L0StopWritesThreshold, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "l0_sublevel_compactions":
				// Do nothing; option existed in older versions of pebble.
			case "lbase_max_bytes":
				o.LBaseMaxBytes, err = strconv.ParseInt(value, 10, 64)
			case "level_multiplier":
				o.Experimental.LevelMultiplier, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "max_concurrent_compactions":
				var concurrentCompactions int
				concurrentCompactions, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
				if concurrentCompactions <= 0 {
					err = errors.New("max_concurrent_compactions cannot be <= 0")
				} else {
					o.MaxConcurrentCompactions = func() int { return concurrentCompactions }
				}
			case "max_concurrent_downloads":
				var concurrentDownloads int
				concurrentDownloads, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
				if concurrentDownloads <= 0 {
					err = errors.New("max_concurrent_compactions cannot be <= 0")
				} else {
					o.MaxConcurrentDownloads = func() int { return concurrentDownloads }
				}
			case "max_manifest_file_size":
				o.MaxManifestFileSize, err = strconv.ParseInt(value, 10, 64)
			case "max_open_files":
				o.MaxOpenFiles, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "mem_table_size":
				o.MemTableSize, err = strconv.ParseUint(value, 10, 64)
			case "mem_table_stop_writes_threshold":
				o.MemTableStopWritesThreshold, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "min_compaction_rate":
				// Do nothing; option existed in older versions of pebble, and
				// may be meaningful again eventually.
			case "min_deletion_rate":
				o.TargetByteDeletionRate, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "min_flush_rate":
				// Do nothing; option existed in older versions of pebble, and
				// may be meaningful again eventually.
			case "multilevel_compaction_heuristic":
				switch {
				case value == "none":
					o.Experimental.MultiLevelCompactionHeuristic = NoMultiLevel{}
				case strings.HasPrefix(value, "wamp"):
					fields := strings.FieldsFunc(strings.TrimPrefix(value, "wamp"), func(r rune) bool {
						return unicode.IsSpace(r) || r == ',' || r == '(' || r == ')'
					})
					if len(fields) != 2 {
						err = errors.Newf("require 2 arguments")
					}
					var h WriteAmpHeuristic
					if err == nil {
						h.AddPropensity, err = strconv.ParseFloat(fields[0], 64)
					}
					if err == nil {
						h.AllowL0, err = strconv.ParseBool(fields[1])
					}
					if err == nil {
						o.Experimental.MultiLevelCompactionHeuristic = h
					} else {
						err = errors.Wrapf(err, "unexpected wamp heuristic arguments: %s", value)
					}
				default:
					err = errors.Newf("unrecognized multilevel compaction heuristic: %s", value)
				}
			case "point_tombstone_weight":
				// Do nothing; deprecated.
			case "strict_wal_tail":
				var strictWALTail bool
				strictWALTail, err = strconv.ParseBool(value)
				if err == nil && !strictWALTail {
					err = errors.Newf("reading from versions with strict_wal_tail=false no longer supported")
				}
			case "merger":
				switch value {
				case "nullptr":
					o.Merger = nil
				case "pebble.concatenate":
					o.Merger = DefaultMerger
				default:
					if hooks != nil && hooks.NewMerger != nil {
						o.Merger, err = hooks.NewMerger(value)
					}
				}
			case "read_compaction_rate":
				o.Experimental.ReadCompactionRate, err = strconv.ParseInt(value, 10, 64)
			case "read_sampling_multiplier":
				o.Experimental.ReadSamplingMultiplier, err = strconv.ParseInt(value, 10, 64)
			case "num_deletions_threshold":
				o.Experimental.NumDeletionsThreshold, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "deletion_size_ratio_threshold":
				val, parseErr := strconv.ParseFloat(value, 32)
				o.Experimental.DeletionSizeRatioThreshold = float32(val)
				err = parseErr
			case "tombstone_dense_compaction_threshold":
				o.Experimental.TombstoneDenseCompactionThreshold, err = strconv.ParseFloat(value, 64)
			case "table_cache_shards":
				o.Experimental.FileCacheShards, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "table_format":
				switch value {
				case "leveldb":
				case "rocksdbv2":
				default:
					return errors.Errorf("pebble: unknown table format: %q", errors.Safe(value))
				}
			case "table_property_collectors":
				// No longer implemented; ignore.
			case "validate_on_ingest":
				o.Experimental.ValidateOnIngest, err = strconv.ParseBool(value)
			case "wal_dir":
				o.WALDir = value
			case "wal_bytes_per_sync":
				o.WALBytesPerSync, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "max_writer_concurrency":
				o.Experimental.MaxWriterConcurrency, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "force_writer_parallelism":
				o.Experimental.ForceWriterParallelism, err = strconv.ParseBool(value)
			case "secondary_cache_size_bytes":
				o.Experimental.SecondaryCacheSizeBytes, err = strconv.ParseInt(value, 10, 64)
			case "create_on_shared":
				var createOnSharedInt int64
				createOnSharedInt, err = strconv.ParseInt(value, 10, 64)
				o.Experimental.CreateOnShared = remote.CreateOnSharedStrategy(createOnSharedInt)
			default:
				if hooks != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown(section+"."+key, value) {
					return nil
				}
				return errors.Errorf("pebble: unknown option: %s.%s",
					errors.Safe(section), errors.Safe(key))
			}
			return err

		case section == "WAL Failover":
			if o.WALFailover == nil {
				o.WALFailover = new(WALFailoverOptions)
			}
			var err error
			switch key {
			case "secondary_dir":
				o.WALFailover.Secondary = wal.Dir{Dirname: value, FS: vfs.Default}
			case "primary_dir_probe_interval":
				o.WALFailover.PrimaryDirProbeInterval, err = time.ParseDuration(value)
			case "healthy_probe_latency_threshold":
				o.WALFailover.HealthyProbeLatencyThreshold, err = time.ParseDuration(value)
			case "healthy_interval":
				o.WALFailover.HealthyInterval, err = time.ParseDuration(value)
			case "unhealthy_sampling_interval":
				o.WALFailover.UnhealthySamplingInterval, err = time.ParseDuration(value)
			case "unhealthy_operation_latency_threshold":
				var threshold time.Duration
				threshold, err = time.ParseDuration(value)
				o.WALFailover.UnhealthyOperationLatencyThreshold = func() (time.Duration, bool) {
					return threshold, true
				}
			case "elevated_write_stall_threshold_lag":
				o.WALFailover.ElevatedWriteStallThresholdLag, err = time.ParseDuration(value)
			default:
				if hooks != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown(section+"."+key, value) {
					return nil
				}
				return errors.Errorf("pebble: unknown option: %s.%s",
					errors.Safe(section), errors.Safe(key))
			}
			return err

		case strings.HasPrefix(section, "Level "):
			var index int
			if n, err := fmt.Sscanf(section, `Level "%d"`, &index); err != nil {
				return err
			} else if n != 1 {
				if hooks != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown(section, value) {
					return nil
				}
				return errors.Errorf("pebble: unknown section: %q", errors.Safe(section))
			}

			if len(o.Levels) <= index {
				newLevels := make([]LevelOptions, index+1)
				copy(newLevels, o.Levels)
				o.Levels = newLevels
			}
			l := &o.Levels[index]

			var err error
			switch key {
			case "block_restart_interval":
				l.BlockRestartInterval, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "block_size":
				l.BlockSize, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "block_size_threshold":
				l.BlockSizeThreshold, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "compression":
				switch value {
				case "Default":
					l.Compression = func() Compression { return DefaultCompression }
				case "NoCompression":
					l.Compression = func() Compression { return NoCompression }
				case "Snappy":
					l.Compression = func() Compression { return SnappyCompression }
				case "ZSTD":
					l.Compression = func() Compression { return ZstdCompression }
				default:
					return errors.Errorf("pebble: unknown compression: %q", errors.Safe(value))
				}
			case "filter_policy":
				if hooks != nil && hooks.NewFilterPolicy != nil {
					l.FilterPolicy, err = hooks.NewFilterPolicy(value)
				}
			case "filter_type":
				switch value {
				case "table":
					l.FilterType = TableFilter
				default:
					return errors.Errorf("pebble: unknown filter type: %q", errors.Safe(value))
				}
			case "index_block_size":
				l.IndexBlockSize, err = strconv.Atoi(value)
			case "target_file_size":
				l.TargetFileSize, err = strconv.ParseInt(value, 10, 64)
			default:
				if hooks != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown(section+"."+key, value) {
					return nil
				}
				return errors.Errorf("pebble: unknown option: %s.%s", errors.Safe(section), errors.Safe(key))
			}
			return err
		}
		if hooks != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown != nil && hooks.SkipUnknown(section+"."+key, value) {
			return nil
		}
		return errors.Errorf("pebble: unknown section: %q", errors.Safe(section))
	}
	return parseOptions(s, parseOptionsFuncs{
		visitKeyValue: visitKeyValue,
	})
}

// ErrMissingWALRecoveryDir is an error returned when a database is attempted to be
// opened without supplying a Options.WALRecoveryDir entry for a directory that
// may contain WALs required to recover a consistent database state.
type ErrMissingWALRecoveryDir struct {
	Dir string
}

// Error implements error.
func (e ErrMissingWALRecoveryDir) Error() string {
	return fmt.Sprintf("directory %q may contain relevant WALs", e.Dir)
}

// CheckCompatibility verifies the options are compatible with the previous options
// serialized by Options.String(). For example, the Comparer and Merger must be
// the same, or data will not be able to be properly read from the DB.
//
// This function only looks at specific keys and does not error out if the
// options are newer and contain unknown keys.
func (o *Options) CheckCompatibility(previousOptions string) error {
	visitKeyValue := func(i, j int, section, key, value string) error {
		switch section + "." + key {
		case "Options.comparer":
			if value != o.Comparer.Name {
				return errors.Errorf("pebble: comparer name from file %q != comparer name from options %q",
					errors.Safe(value), errors.Safe(o.Comparer.Name))
			}
		case "Options.merger":
			// RocksDB allows the merge operator to be unspecified, in which case it
			// shows up as "nullptr".
			if value != "nullptr" && value != o.Merger.Name {
				return errors.Errorf("pebble: merger name from file %q != merger name from options %q",
					errors.Safe(value), errors.Safe(o.Merger.Name))
			}
		case "Options.wal_dir", "WAL Failover.secondary_dir":
			switch {
			case o.WALDir == value:
				return nil
			case o.WALFailover != nil && o.WALFailover.Secondary.Dirname == value:
				return nil
			default:
				for _, d := range o.WALRecoveryDirs {
					if d.Dirname == value {
						return nil
					}
				}
				return ErrMissingWALRecoveryDir{Dir: value}
			}
		}
		return nil
	}
	return parseOptions(previousOptions, parseOptionsFuncs{visitKeyValue: visitKeyValue})
}

// Validate verifies that the options are mutually consistent. For example,
// L0StopWritesThreshold must be >= L0CompactionThreshold, otherwise a write
// stall would persist indefinitely.
func (o *Options) Validate() error {
	// Note that we can presume Options.EnsureDefaults has been called, so there
	// is no need to check for zero values.

	var buf strings.Builder
	if o.Experimental.L0CompactionConcurrency < 1 {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "L0CompactionConcurrency (%d) must be >= 1\n",
			o.Experimental.L0CompactionConcurrency)
	}
	if o.L0StopWritesThreshold < o.L0CompactionThreshold {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "L0StopWritesThreshold (%d) must be >= L0CompactionThreshold (%d)\n",
			o.L0StopWritesThreshold, o.L0CompactionThreshold)
	}
	if uint64(o.MemTableSize) >= maxMemTableSize {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "MemTableSize (%s) must be < %s\n",
			humanize.Bytes.Uint64(uint64(o.MemTableSize)), humanize.Bytes.Uint64(maxMemTableSize))
	}
	if o.MemTableStopWritesThreshold < 2 {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "MemTableStopWritesThreshold (%d) must be >= 2\n",
			o.MemTableStopWritesThreshold)
	}
	if o.FormatMajorVersion < FormatMinSupported || o.FormatMajorVersion > internalFormatNewest {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "FormatMajorVersion (%d) must be between %d and %d\n",
			o.FormatMajorVersion, FormatMinSupported, internalFormatNewest)
	}
	if o.Experimental.CreateOnShared != remote.CreateOnSharedNone && o.FormatMajorVersion < FormatMinForSharedObjects {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "FormatMajorVersion (%d) when CreateOnShared is set must be at least %d\n",
			o.FormatMajorVersion, FormatMinForSharedObjects)
	}
	if o.FileCache != nil && o.Cache != o.FileCache.cache {
		fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "underlying cache in the FileCache and the Cache dont match\n")
	}
	if len(o.KeySchemas) > 0 {
		if o.KeySchema == "" {
			fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "KeySchemas is set but KeySchema is not\n")
		}
		if _, ok := o.KeySchemas[o.KeySchema]; !ok {
			fmt.Fprintf(&buf, "KeySchema %q not found in KeySchemas\n", o.KeySchema)
		}
	}
	if buf.Len() == 0 {
		return nil
	}
	return errors.New(buf.String())
}

// MakeReaderOptions constructs sstable.ReaderOptions from the corresponding
// options in the receiver.
func (o *Options) MakeReaderOptions() sstable.ReaderOptions {
	var readerOpts sstable.ReaderOptions
	if o != nil {
		readerOpts.Comparer = o.Comparer
		readerOpts.Filters = o.Filters
		readerOpts.KeySchemas = o.KeySchemas
		readerOpts.LoadBlockSema = o.LoadBlockSema
		readerOpts.LoggerAndTracer = o.LoggerAndTracer
		readerOpts.Merger = o.Merger
	}
	return readerOpts
}

// MakeWriterOptions constructs sstable.WriterOptions for the specified level
// from the corresponding options in the receiver.
func (o *Options) MakeWriterOptions(level int, format sstable.TableFormat) sstable.WriterOptions {
	var writerOpts sstable.WriterOptions
	writerOpts.TableFormat = format
	if o != nil {
		writerOpts.Comparer = o.Comparer
		if o.Merger != nil {
			writerOpts.MergerName = o.Merger.Name
		}
		writerOpts.BlockPropertyCollectors = o.BlockPropertyCollectors
	}
	if format >= sstable.TableFormatPebblev3 {
		writerOpts.ShortAttributeExtractor = o.Experimental.ShortAttributeExtractor
		writerOpts.RequiredInPlaceValueBound = o.Experimental.RequiredInPlaceValueBound
		if format >= sstable.TableFormatPebblev4 && level == numLevels-1 {
			writerOpts.WritingToLowestLevel = true
		}
	}
	levelOpts := o.Level(level)
	writerOpts.BlockRestartInterval = levelOpts.BlockRestartInterval
	writerOpts.BlockSize = levelOpts.BlockSize
	writerOpts.BlockSizeThreshold = levelOpts.BlockSizeThreshold
	writerOpts.Compression = resolveDefaultCompression(levelOpts.Compression())
	writerOpts.FilterPolicy = levelOpts.FilterPolicy
	writerOpts.FilterType = levelOpts.FilterType
	writerOpts.IndexBlockSize = levelOpts.IndexBlockSize
	writerOpts.KeySchema = o.KeySchemas[o.KeySchema]
	writerOpts.AllocatorSizeClasses = o.AllocatorSizeClasses
	writerOpts.NumDeletionsThreshold = o.Experimental.NumDeletionsThreshold
	writerOpts.DeletionSizeRatioThreshold = o.Experimental.DeletionSizeRatioThreshold
	return writerOpts
}

func resolveDefaultCompression(c Compression) Compression {
	if c <= DefaultCompression || c >= block.NCompression {
		c = SnappyCompression
	}
	return c
}